Some people use fear and coercion to get their way. We
listen to and obey others because they are esteemed, looked
up to, and sought out. Still others get their way because we believe what they
say. These people are exercising power; their relationship with others is
asymmetrical.
Definitions:
Many definitions of power have been proposed. These include:
- The ability to limit the choices of another.
- Carrying out one's will despite resistance from others.
- The use of constraint (physical or psychological) in pursuit of one's
goal.
- The desire for influence; imposing your will on others or the environment
However, the definition that seems to be most precise, and provides the most
insight is:
It is instructive to recognize that power is an attribute of the
relationship and not of the person. To better understand this, I like
to imagine a powerful and generally feared boss standing in a long line at the
state motor vehicle registration agency. While at work this person is the boss but
here he or she is just as powerless as anyone else, having to wait a very long
time to talk to a junior level clerk to get the car registered. Here the asymmetry is clear,
the boss waits while the clerk takes their good old time and holds all the
cards. In this relationship, the boss has submitted to the clerk.
The asymmetries of power may not be expressed unless goals are in
conflict. In
other words, a gentle giant is not likely to harm you unless you provoke him
into a conflict.
Power can be exercised from these three basic postures:
- Dominance—The ability to inflict harm, also
known as aggressive coercion, or
- Stature—The ability to provide help, also known as
leverage, or
- Influence—altering people's beliefs.
The first two power bases are the proverbial “carrot and stick”. The third is
an implicit and pervasive method used to alter people's behavior without
requiring their obedience or submission
Power can be characterized, measured, and compared based in the following
four characteristics:
- Base is the source of power, such as fighting ability or
control over sexual access, favors, affiliation, or other sources of leverage.
The base is some form of either dominance or
stature.
- Means refers to the instruments of power, such as threat or
reward, and it is the way the relationship is negotiated,
- Amount refers to the magnitude of power, how it may vary
with the context of a situation, (e.g. within a territory) and how often it is
exercised,
- Scope refers to the range of power and it describes the
types of behaviors the powerful agent “A” can evoke from the subordinate “B”
These characteristics provide a means to measure and describe why, how, when,
and to what extent power occurs.
The outcome of a competition is determined by
dominance, leverage (stature), and
motivation. Power dynamics only enter a contest
when the goals of the participants conflict. When resources are abundant
free and peaceful access is likely and competition is unlikely. If scarce
resources are concentrated or positioned so they can be defended, then conflict
is likely, and the resources are distributed according to the power of those
contending for them. If resources are limited but not defensible, then
tolerance
and sharing are more likely than conflict.
Power can be aggression-based (known as aggressive coercion or
dominance) or dependence-based (i.e. based on
stature or leverage). If person “B” depends on person “A” for resources, knowledge, affection, praise, approval, companionship, rewards, or
anything else, then “A” has dependence-based power over “B”. The amount of power
“A” has over “B” in this relationship is related to how much
“B” values the
resources controlled by “A”, and the availability of substitutes or
alternative sources.
Powerful Personalities
Personality is an important instrument of power. Although power is defined in
terms of a relationship, we consistently regard some people as powerful
individuals and others as weak. Personal attributes that contribute to powerful
personalities include physical size and strength, especially including tall men,
because strength supports the association of power with dominance. Increasingly,
mental resources including precision, acuity, charm, apparent honesty, humor,
sincerity, and solemnity are important. Communicating thoughts lucidly and eloquently
contributes to the powerful personality. It is also important to convey a
supreme certainty in your own beliefs, including the ability to assert the
unknown with great conviction. A mixture of warmth and firmness projects power
and influence. Rituals, including meetings, audiences, pageantry, and applause also enhance the powerful image.
Power can be signaled by speaking in a softer voice while expecting everyone
to listen. Power and status identifications are communicated in other ways
through the voice channel. Specifically, the lower frequency range of the voice,
in a band of audio frequencies below 500 hertz, communicates social
status relations between partners. When people are
conversing, the lower status person
will adjust the timbre of his or her voice in this range to accommodate that of the higher
ranking person.
Keeping cool while others are demanding, dependent, or chaotic presents a
powerful image. It sends the message “they need me more than I need them, I am
self-reliant and in control.” Keeping calm in the face of another's anger
maintains control in a conflict. Going a step further, demonstrating
indifference towards others humiliates them while it distinguishes and distances the
self-reliant and powerful personality. Indifference creates a mixture of
fear an
awe that enhances the powerful personality.
Women often employ alliances with other women to attain power from a group
defense that goes beyond what they can attain individually from their own smaller physical
stature.
Asymmetry is power, and several symbols emphasize the asymmetry of a
relationship. Height, including tall people, high ground, top hats, and
topological relief, are symbols of power. Short men have to work harder to
command authority and for their power to become recognized. Pageantry, ceremony,
celebration, and other events that draw positive attention to the celebrant and
separate them from the crowd emphasize an asymmetrical relationship that
enhances a powerful image. Uniforms and costumes that distinguish roles and
powerful positions create a visual image of the asymmetry that emphasizes the
power of the position. Examples include military officer's uniforms, judge's
robes, and the robes worn by religious leaders. This also includes a man's suit,
especially when wearing a power tie. Official seals, such as the seal of the
president, also emphasize the power that comes with the position. Flags, crests,
engraved stationary, and particular music, such as “hail to the chief” also
emphasize the power of the position. Monograms, and customized jewelry and
accessories also emphasize uniqueness and asymmetry.
The English language use of the word “authority” has two very different
meanings. One meaning describes power—such as the right to control,
command, or determine—and the other described expertise—an accepted source of
information. People identify authority with legitimacy; authority exists when
people voluntarily obey those with positional power, such as government leaders,
officers of the law and courts, and superiors within an organizational
hierarchy. Authority is a belief in legitimacy measured by voluntary compliance.
A recognized authority can obtain power from one or more of the three basic
postures of dominance, stature, and influence:
- Positional power often legitimizes the use of coercive sanctions. For
example, your boss can give you unfavorable assignments, fire you, or refuse
to give you a raise or promotion. Police officers are authorized to make
arrests. This provides the authority with power based on
dominance.
- A true expert derives authority from the unique information, skill, or
talent they command. For example, Dr. Paul Ekman is a widely recognized
authority on the topic of basic emotions. His authority attains power based on
his
stature rather than on dominance.
- An influential authority gains voluntary
compliance.
Ralph Nader
,
Jesse
Jackson , elder statesmen, and various bloggers
lack authority and positional power, but they exercise considerable power
through the influence they have on people's beliefs.
A fear of authority arises when we are attracted to strong figures who we do
not believe are legitimate. Also, we resent people who place status above
duty; you have to do the work.
Many organizations recognize some form of hierarchical structure. The
military has an obvious, strict, and formal hierarchy, with very clear lines of
command, status, authority, and control that are regularly reinforced. Business
organizations typically have a top executive, an executive management layer,
various other layers of management, and finally the non-management personnel.
Responsibility and authority is defined and positional power is unevenly
distributed. Even the local bike club has a president and executive board. In
almost any group there is inevitably a leader, either formally or informally
recognized. This is inherently an asymmetrical, and therefore power-based
structure. With abuses of power so prevalent, why are hierarchies so common? The
answer is that hierarchies promote social order because they are efficient at
making decisions and settling disputes. The challenge within such a structure is
balance power to avoid abuses. In a democracy, the people form an
alliance that provides power sufficient to remove unhelpful leaders. However,
most organizations are not democracies.
Power and Injustice
Power breads injustice. The asymmetry of
power upsets the balance of justice. When
peers disagree the issue is often settled by reason
or compromise. When the powerless disagree with the powerful, the powerful
prevail regardless of reason, facts, or justice.
Quotations
- “Of the infinite desires of man, the chief are the desires for power and
glory” ~
Bertrand Russell

- “The love of power is the love of ourselves” ~
William
Hazlitt

- “The injustice of society is that the subordinate must make sense of what
power is” ~ Hegel
.
- “Liberty finally exists when the recognition I give you does not subtract
something from myself ”~ Richard Sennett
- “The chimpanzee resolves sexual issues with power, and the bonobos resolve
power issues with sex.” ~
Frans de
Waal

- “The right of nature . . . is the liberty each man hath to use his own
power as he will himself for the preservation of his own nature.” ~
Thomas
Hobbes

- “Innovation creates opportunity.”~
Leland R. Beaumont

- “Quite amazingly, those who have the most power in our society almost never talk
about it and even more amazingly induce many of the rest of us not to recognize
it either.” ~ Jean Baker Miller
- "The power of love must overcome the love of power." ~
References:
Beyond Dominance: the importance of leverage, Rebecca J. Lewis, The
Quarterly Review of Biology, volume 77 (2002), pages 149–164. Published by
the University of Chicago Press
Chapais B. 1991. Primates and the origins of aggression, power, and politics
among humans. Pages 190-218 in Understanding Behavior: What Primate Studies Tell
Us About Human Behavior, edited by J D Loy and C B Peters. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Humiliation and Assistance: Telling the Truth About Power, Telling a New Story,
by Linda M. Hartling, Wellesley College
The Power Principle: Influence with Honor , by Blaine Lee
The Empowered Manager: Positive Political Skills at Work , by Peter Block
The 48 Laws of Power , by Robert Greene
The Anatomy of Power, by John Kenneth Galbraith
Authority ,
by Richard Sennett
The Power of a Positive No: How to Say No and Still Get to Yes ,
by William Ury
Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence , by Dale Peterson,
Richard Wrangham
Our Inner Ape ,
by Frans De Waal
The Selfish Gene ,
by Richard Dawkins
The Leviathan , by
Thomas Hobbes,
Chapter X
A nonverbal signal in voices of interview partners effectively
predicts communication accommodation and social stature perceptions ,
by Stanford W. Gregory, Stephen Webster
|